Helping At-Risk Youth

Another option for managing a volunteer program is to partner or contract with another organization. Local affiliates of national youth-service organizations, such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters or Boys and Girls Clubs, commonly provide services such as mentoring or tutoring. Thus they have experience and skills in operating these programs and have procedures and standards (which may be established by their national organization) for recruiting, screening, and training volunteers—responsibilities that can seem daunting to program staff inexperienced in working with volunteers. This option may be particularly useful for programs that lack staff capacity to manage a volunteer program and are unable or unwilling to add staff to do so.

• SafeFutures initiatives typically use community-based organizations to provide various program components, including mentoring and tutoring. In Boston, Massachusetts, a coalition of churches in the target area operated one of the mentoring programs, a community development agency operated another, and the Boys and Girls Club operated an after-school tutoring program. In Imperial County, California, and St. Louis, Missouri, the mentoring component was handled by the local Big Brothers/Big Sisters. Seattle, Washington, used Big Sisters of King County for one of its mentoring programs for at-risk girls and Girls, Inc. to operate a combined after-school and mentoring program.

Before initiating volunteer or student recruitment, it is desirable for program managers and staff to develop a mission statement for the volunteer program. This statement should set goals or objectives for youth, such as improving academic performance and reducing delinquent behavior. A clear understanding of the volunteer effort's purpose will help establish criteria for recruiting the participants and volunteers most appropriate to the mission.

Put energy and creativity into volunteer recruitment.

One of the early, key responsibilities of a volunteer coordinator is to recruit volunteers. Recruitment usually involves making presentations to various groups, including service-oriented clubs (Kiwanis, Lions, Junior League, etc.), employees of businesses or other organizations, school staff, college and university students, fraternities and sororities, and churches and religious organizations. Personal friends and social networks are another common source of volunteers. Volunteer coordinators generally use multiple recruiting techniques.

• The director of Big Brothers/Big Sisters of Imperial Valley, California, jokingly noted that "no one is safe" from her recruiting efforts. She encourages almost everyone she meets to volunteer as a mentor. Her other recruiting methods include newspaper ads, billboards, public service announcements, press releases, and television appearances. She tries to bring a student and a mentor along to discuss their feelings about mentoring when she makes presentations to groups, or she brings a video showing local mentors and students. The agency brochure also mentiones the need for volunteers and includes an application form.

• The Pinal County, Arizona, CIS program conducted an annual campaign to solicit volunteers, including letters to community residents noting the program's need for volunteers on a regular or irregular basis. A list of available volunteer positions at different schools was attached to the letter along with a volunteer application. Staff maintained a registry of applicants to contact as volunteer opportunities arose.

A number of CIS programs have a regular arrangement to use VISTA or AmeriCorps volunteers as tutors or mentors. Foster Grandparents and similar organizations also serve in CIS programs. Although most programs seek adult volunteers, some use high-school students (and even middle-school students) as tutors or mentors for elementary-school students. This approach fits the requirements for community service that some school districts have. Volunteer coordinators often ask new volunteers to recommend friends or colleagues. Current volunteers are another good source of recruits.

Many programs concentrate their recruiting efforts on their corporate partners and the businesses or organizations for which their board members work. The volunteer coordinator in one CIS program noted that the business community had been generous in providing volunteers and that it was an "easy sell" because education and dropout prevention were "hot" topics, as was business involvement with schools. Programs in other communities do not always find businesses so receptive, however, and small communities may not have enough businesses to fill the many requests for volunteers of organizations that seek such assistance.

Large organizations that provide significant numbers of volunteers in their communities may have someone on their own staff who is responsible for volunteer efforts. Such individuals may recruit internally, then link those interested in volunteering with community organizations that need them.

• For example, Goldman, Sachs & Co., the corporate partner of MCA in New York City, encouraged its employees to volunteer for a variety of organizations. Its director of community services coordinated volunteer efforts. She recruited potential volunteers and hosted events where representatives of community organizations presented their programs and discussed the kinds of volunteers and commitment needed.

Recruiting strategies are usually affected, at least to some extent, by decisions about the nature of the program and any restrictions on "matching." For example, many mentoring programs seek to match mentoring pairs by gender; some also seek to match youth with adults of the same race or ethnicity. Since such decisions affect recruiting efforts, program staff should make such decisions before recruiting begins.

• For the Boston, Massachusetts, SafeFutures program, the Boys and Girls Club in the target area began recruiting mentors from an African American fraternity, while a church-based mentoring program recruited among church members. In Seattle, Washington, the Cambodian Girls Group used female Cambodian college students as tutors, mentors, and group leaders. A Seattle SafeFutures mentoring program for juvenile offenders returning to the community recruited mentors through Alcoholics Anonymous (since a drug-free lifestyle is one of the goals for these youth), community leaders, and churches. In Contra Costa County, California, female staff members organizing a mentoring program for at-risk girls networked with other women they knew in social-service and helping professions to assemble a group of African American and Latina mentors. Big Sisters of King County linked with ethnic and other grassroots community groups to recruit for its school-based mentoring program.

• The High Point, North Carolina, CIS partner program wanted to match youth particularly at risk of delinquency or in need of a strong male role model with police officers. The police chief allowed CIS to recruit police volunteers and served as a CIS partner himself. Based on their satisfaction with the police volunteers, the program planned to begin recruiting fire fighters as well. Some members of the Adams County, Colorado, police department were involved in mentoring students in that CIS program.

• The Palm Beach County, Florida, CIS program developed a partnership with the educational psychology department of West Palm Beach Community College when it established a formal mentoring program. The mentor coordinator met with a faculty member from the department, then provided an in-class orientation for psychology students, obtaining 45 mentors for the program. The faculty member also remained involved by monitoring the students' mentoring efforts.

It is important to be clear about the nature of involvement and the level of commitment required—that is, the number of hours per month expected of volunteers—when recruiting volunteers. Volunteers without this understanding may quickly drop out if they find the expectations are more than they can meet. Some programs have mentors sign a "contract" acknowledging their understanding of the tutoring or mentoring role and its obligations. In some cases, students are also asked to sign the contract (or one designed for students).

Some individuals may want to volunteer but can't make a substantial or regular time commitment. Some volunteer coordinators maintain lists of such individuals, calling on them for sporadic or short-term volunteering, such as serving as guest speakers for a class, helping with special events, or allowing students to job-shadow them.

Arrange to screen volunteers.

It is important to screen volunteers for the safety of the children in the program and to be sure they are appropriate for work with at-risk youth. Many programs require volunteers to fill out application forms, participate in interviews, provide references, and undergo police background checks. Local police departments or organizations such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters, Boy or Girl Scouts, and Boys and Girls Clubs can provide information on how to arrange for background checks for programs unfamiliar with this procedure. It can take several months to complete a thorough screening process, including a background check. The Seattle, Washington, CIS program used a private security firm to conduct background checks because that was faster than using the police department, although the latter service was free. Program staff were concerned that they might lose potential volunteers while waiting for the police to complete the background checks.

Provide training to volunteers.

Most programs with a substantial volunteer effort provide training and orientation for mentors and tutors before they begin working with youth. These sessions provide an orientation to the program overall as well as training in the specific activities volunteers are to perform. Because volunteers may have little or no experience with the difficulties and pressures faced by at-risk youth, training often includes sensitizing volunteers to the range of behavior and needs they might encounter. Some programs teach youths' vernacular to help volunteers understand their use of language. Some also address gang-related issues, encouraging volunteers not to wear gang colors. Training sessions also include (or should include) guidance on confidentiality, since volunteers may learn sensitive information, as well as training on recognizing abuse and legal requirements for reporting it. Most training efforts consist of a single session (sometimes repeated at different times to accommodate volunteers' schedules), generally lasting from ninety minutes to three hours. Program administrators are often present for the training, to meet and thank volunteers and discuss the program. Sometimes current volunteers attend to help provide the training and answer questions.

Most programs that offer volunteer training also provide written guidelines in the form of a volunteer manual or handbook. Such written materials serve as ongoing resources for volunteers, enabling them to refresh their memories about specific points after their activities begin. Some programs offer periodic refresher training sessions to emphasize key points and address questions or problems volunteers have after they begin working with youth.

• In the Central Texas CIS program, volunteers participated in a two-hour orientation and training session held in the early evening. Several sessions were offered in the early part of each semester, since college students (the primary source of volunteers) had varied schedules. Volunteers were given a handbook that provided information about children and adolescents, at-risk families, the role of tutors and mentors, communication suggestions, ways mentors could spend time with students, tips for tutoring, and discussion of the difficulties and rewards of volunteering.

• In High Point, North Carolina, CIS held an initial training session each fall, covering an overview of the dropout problem, partner responsibilities and expectations, and suggestions for interacting with at-risk students. Role-playing was used, with staff acting as students to demonstrate how students might behave in different scenarios, to give volunteers an opportunity to practice responding to students, with staff feedback and suggestions. The coordinator gave volunteers a list of tips for working with students, information about the program and factors that put students at risk, names and telephone numbers of CIS staff, a confidentiality form, and a release for a police background check.

• The MCA program in New York City provided a mentor training session that explained the philosophy and mission of the MCA, including the role of the mentor in the school's team approach. "Ice breaker" exercises required participants to take credit for an accomplishment and were followed by a discussion of standing out, discomfort, acknowledging one's importance, and how young adults feel about such issues. The training also discussed media images of urban youth, stereotypes, and problems experienced by at-risk youth. A role-playing exercise was used, with MCA staff portraying different ways students might act during initial meetings with their mentors (e.g., withdrawn, excessively outgoing). Participants then discussed the potential meanings of different behaviors. Volunteers were also asked to discuss people who had helped them in some way, leading to a discussion of mentors and their attributes.

• The Seattle, Washington, CIS program partnered with World Vision, which recruits, screens, trains and matches adult volunteers with at-risk youth. CIS volunteers participated in an orientation and training session in which volunteer coordinators from each school provided information specific to their schools, such as arrival procedures (e.g., where to park, sign-in procedures), while the program director provided general information about volunteering. A handbook was developed for tutors, including such topics as how to identify and teach to the student's learning style, positive discipline, motivation, and specific tips and activities for tutoring reading and math. A local bank underwrote All-City Tutor Training, which provided hands-on training for volunteers after they had started tutoring and needed additional resources. These sessions were held in schools around the city. Participants could attend their choice of workshops on such topics as reading or math tutoring, structuring tutoring sessions, cultural diversity and the learning process, learning styles, and discipline and boundary setting.

• The Columbia, South Carolina, volunteer coordinator typically held one training workshop for mentors each year. But in recent years she found that volunteers' time pressures made it difficult to arrange group training that all could attend, so she began providing one-on-one training. Volunteers also received a manual and a handbook including guidelines and suggestions for relating to students.

• The Boston, Massachusetts, SafeFutures program arranged to have Greater Boston One to One, a coalition that provides support for mentoring efforts, train staff of selected community-based organizations in starting and operating mentoring programs. One to One was also available to train mentors using its own "Mentoring 101" curriculum and manual. Topics included in the four-hour training session were mentoring roles and tasks, stages of the mentoring relationship, communication skills, diversity, adolescent development, values clarification, goal setting, and problem solving.

• Mentor training provided by Big Brothers/Big Sisters in St. Louis, Missouri, included such topics as listening and communication skills, modeling values, policies and guidelines for mentors, tips for dealing with problem situations, goals and activities in various life-skill areas, characteristics of children at different ages, and child abuse and neglect identification and reporting.

• One of the business partners in Seattle's HIRE program, a major department store, provided a half-day training session for other participating companies, including training for employees who would serve as mentors. The training included a cultural diversity component used in the store's own staff training sessions. A guidebook on mentoring and tutoring was also provided. Separate training was provided for students on workplace expectations, behavior, and dress.

Training sessions provide an opportunity to explain any "rules" for volunteers, such as where meetings with youth may take place (some programs only allow meetings at school sites) and whether volunteers may give their telephone numbers to students (some programs prohibit this; others require that the student be able to contact the mentor by telephone). Confidentiality requirements are also typically explained during training sessions, as well as discussion of when confidentiality cannot be honored (such as legal requirements to report suspected abuse). The potential for parental concern about mentors' possible interference with parental roles and how to avoid such situations is also discussed.

Select students to be tutored or mentored.

Most CIS and SafeFutures programs do not formally recruit youth to participate in mentoring or tutoring; they draw from those already participating in the program. In many cases, programs allow youth to self-select for participation in these activities. An advantage of this approach is that children participate in these programs because they want to, which may enhance their level of participation and improvement. A disadvantage is that youth who are most at risk may be least likely to self-refer. Thus it is often desirable to establish criteria to identify those who need these services most and recruit them (unless the program can provide mentors or individual tutors for all its youth, which is unusual).

Criteria should be established so that youth selected for participation are good matches for the anticipated outcomes of the volunteer effort. If a program is designed to increase academic performance, the criteria should allow youth in need of academic assistance to be eligible for assistance. If a program is designed to deter gang involvement, youth already involved in gangs or identified as likely to become involved should be selected. It is helpful to involve knowledgeable individuals in referring youth who meet the criteria. Many programs use teachers or guidance counselors to refer youth to specific program activities.

Inform and involve parents.

Most programs require parental consent for children to participate in one-on-one activities, primarily mentoring. Parents may be uneasy about having another adult establish a relationship with their child, with concerns about undermining their authority or criticizing their parenting skills. In addition, parents are likely to be legitimately concerned about the safety of their child. Program staff need to assure parents, through letters or meetings, that mentors are not intended to supplant or interfere with the parent-child relationship, and that the screening process ensures safety. Programs should provide an orientation for parents and youth to explain the intent and activities of mentoring programs. This session may be done as part of the overall program orientation or as a separate meeting. Some programs use telephone contact or written materials to explain their efforts. Ideally, parents should have an opportunity to meet the prospective mentor before the match is finalized.

Match volunteers and youth.

Since mentors and youth are supposed to develop a fairly close relationship, it is important that there be some commonalities between them. Many programs seek to match mentors and youth by gender, ethnicity, or language, which may promote communication and understanding. Other programs match them according to shared interests. Some CIS programs use "interest finder" forms, completed separately by volunteers and students, to help in matching them. These forms typically ask the student or volunteer to identify likes, dislikes, and interests in various categories, such as favorite things to do; things liked best about school or work; things that make them happy, sad, or angry; favorite foods; and preferences in reading, movies, and television programs. Other programs bring students and volunteers together to involve students in selecting their mentor.

• In the MCA program in New York City, an introductory session used a variety of small-group, ice-breaking activities to allow students and volunteers to get to know each other. Students then identified the volunteer with whom they would like to be matched. A second, kickoff session took place at the corporate partner's office, where the matched pairs were announced. The pairs then met to share information about each other and introduce each other to the large group.

• In Fort Belknap, Montana, an initial meeting involving the mentor, youth, and parent was scheduled before mentoring activities began to help the parties get to know each other and ensure that the match was satisfactory to all.

• Big Sisters of King County, Washington, considered such factors as compatibility of values, life experiences, individual interests, and personality traits in making a match. Any party (mentor, child, parent) could reject a match for any reason. Identifying information was kept confidential until all parties approved of the match.

In cases where the initial match does not seem to be working, most programs make another match at the request of the student or mentor.

Some programs try to match mentors with particular characteristics to certain students. For example, some programs seek college students or college graduates of the same ethnicity or from the same neighborhood as the youth to demonstrate that higher education is an achievable goal. Women who are or were young mothers might be paired with teen mothers to offer support and encouragement. Women who avoided becoming teen mothers might be matched with at-risk girls who are not yet teen mothers to demonstrate that avoidance of teen motherhood is possible.

Provide ongoing support and monitoring.

Support for volunteer efforts should not end after training is provided. Ongoing contact and communication helps solidify ties between the program and the volunteers, reducing the potential for volunteer dropout. It is also important to monitor the volunteer relationship to ensure that obligations of both parties are being met, assess student progress, identify problems, and provide suggestions for addressing them. A number of programs use regular telephone contact with volunteers to keep in touch. Several others use sign-in sheets, and one asks volunteers to write a brief description of each meeting with students. Programs also use newsletters to keep both volunteers and students informed. "Evaluation forms" filled out by students and volunteers at the end of mentoring can yield feedback and suggestions for improvement.

• The Central Texas CIS volunteer coordinators performed several supportive roles. They scheduled volunteer activities at their assigned schools, and reminded students and teachers about scheduled meetings (which were held during class periods). They called or met with each volunteer once a month to discuss how their work was going and to provide assistance. Coordinators also kept track of volunteer hours served, greeted volunteers, and had refreshments (coffee, soft drinks) available. The program also published a monthly newsletter that recognized the efforts of volunteers and provided general program news and reminders about upcoming events or important dates (such as school closures, exam dates). Volunteers filled out an evaluation form at year end to provide feedback about their experience.

• In Columbia, South Carolina, the volunteer coordinator had monthly telephone contact with mentors, in part to keep track of hours worked, but also to discuss problems and student progress. New mentors were called more frequently. In addition to training for new volunteers, the coordinator held an annual workshop for all mentors. This workshop was used to exchange information, including presentations by experienced mentors, to reinforce key points, and to thank mentors for their help.

• In the Seattle, Washington, SafeFutures program, mentors are required to stay in touch with the Big Sisters case manager, who conducts telephone and in-person supervision. The case manager monitors the mentor- student relationship, the child's relationship with the parents, and any changes in needs or behavior.

• The MCA program in New York City provided ongoing assistance through "how's it going" meetings each semester, which included input from mentors, the CIS coordinator, and the Goldman Sachs volunteer coordinator. These meetings were structured as small-group discussions about the mentors' experiences, problems, and concerns. In addition, the program's administrative assistant coordinated the mentor program, reminding students and mentors of scheduled meetings and conveying messages (about a last-minute cancellation, for example). She periodically called mentors to check how the mentoring relationship was going and checked students' perceptions through informal contact during lunch period. MCA also sent volunteers and students a monthly newsletter announcing upcoming events and key dates and highlighting past activities.

• The High Point, North Carolina, volunteer coordinator provided a refresher training session in January of each year. This primarily involved small-group discussion of partners' questions and problems, with CIS staff and case managers serving as facilitators. The coordinator also kept track of volunteers' participation and called if they did not attend as scheduled. She also informally greeted and thanked partners as they checked in at the CIS office before meeting with their students. Each partner was given a survey at the end of the year to obtain feedback and suggestions. The coordinator also conducted informal exit interviews with partners who left the program.

• The Seattle, Washington, CIS program used volunteer coordinators (parents or community members who received a small stipend) at each school to monitor student participation in tutorial sessions. They supported volunteers by functioning as a point of contact familiar with the school and acted as liaisons between teachers and volunteers.

Recognize volunteers' work.

The important work that volunteers perform is not always high profile, and the severe problems that at-risk students face often mean that progress is limited. Therefore it is important to recognize volunteer efforts. Recognition may occur in frequent, small ways—such as staff remembering to say "thank you" each time they have contact with the volunteer, having refreshments available, or ongoing recognition in program newsletters. Some programs also organize occasional larger-scale recognition events or invite volunteers to attend holiday parties and year-end events, where their contributions are acknowledged.

• High Point, North Carolina, held a small reception to thank partners on the last day of class. Partners also attended a year-end dinner for graduates as guests of the program.

• In Central Texas, the CIS bulletin board in each school honored a "volunteer of the month." The program also held an annual volunteer appreciation event, such as a picnic in a park or a reception in a hotel. In addition, volunteers were given a recognition certificate signed by the program manager and volunteer coordinator of the school to which they were assigned.

• At the conclusion of Seattle, Washington's summer HIRE program, the mayor's office held a reception for participating employee-volunteers and students.

Fund-Raising and Marketing

FUND-RAISING

The CIS programs studied tapped into many different funding streams. This chapter provides suggestions based on their experiences. Since marketing supports fund-raising, the latter portion of this chapter focuses on marketing.

Diversify funding sources and seek long-term commitments of funds.

Multiple sources of funds help local programs survive reductions in funding that almost inevitably occur. Long-term commitments, such as obtaining earmarked funds from a state legislature or being established as a line item in the school district budget, reduce some of the pressure for repeated fund-raising. Similarly, some communities pass tax levies to support education or services for children and families. Dropout prevention and other youth programs are likely to be eligible for such funds. However, overdependence on one source of funds can spell disaster, since any source of support, no matter how stable it seems, may disappear or diminish for any number of reasons. Diversification is always desirable, even for ongoing funding streams.

• The Florida state legislature provided funds for CIS programs for many years. Initially, most of the state support went to the Palm Beach County CIS (PBCIS) program. As the number of CIS programs in the state grew, Palm Beach CIS received fewer state funds as the existing "pie" was divided into smaller pieces. However, PBCIS also received funds from a local taxing authority, the Children's Service Council, created specifically to fund services for children, which helped mitigate the reduction in state support.

Many foundations and other donors are willing to provide seed money to help a new project or program get started, but such funds are usually provided for only a brief period of time. Federal grants are available for initiatives intended to test innovative programs or practices that may be replicated elsewhere. But programs need to supplement seed money from the beginning with funds that are not linked to the newness of a particular service, e.g., earmarked tax funds or a school district budget. Developing long-term relationships with local governments, businesses, foundations, organizations such as the United Way or Junior League, and even individuals can generate ongoing funds that are not tied to new programs.

• In Texas and Florida, state legislatures funded CIS programs. State CIS programs were responsible for distributing these funds to local programs.

• In Houston, Texas, the school district made CIS a line item in its budget.

• In Washington, the Boeing Company provided considerable monetary support to the state CIS office, which reallocated funds to community programs. Although corporate leaders recognized that education had been a key concern since the 1980s and did not expect a "quick fix," Boeing still regarded its financial contributions as seed money and began to reduce its support gradually. Anticipating this action, the Seattle CIS program worked to become eligible for funds through the city's Families and Education Levy, a property tax designed to generate $8.5 million annually for programs related to education, children, and families.

• The Columbia, South Carolina, CIS program received support from the local Junior League since its inception. Donations from such organizations and local businesses provided about two-thirds of the program's budget (in 1993-94). The majority of these funds were unrestricted, the type of funding the program primarily pursued. Program staff credited their success in obtaining such support to several factors: (1) The program positioned itself as a collaborator and facilitator rather than a service-providing agency; (2) it had a small staff and did not try to raise large amounts; (3) it was perceived as being run in a businesslike way; and (4) the program had demonstrated success in terms of graduates.

Pursue public or private grants.

Grants have their drawbacks. They are often designed as "start-up" money or apply only to a particular aspect of a program, such as a single group of students (teen mothers, below-grade pupils) or a specific effort (after-school tutoring, life-skills training). However, they are an important source of funding for most programs. Grant writing may be particularly important for smaller communities with a limited number of businesses and industries to serve as potential local funders. However, the time and expense needed to seek grants must be weighed against existing resources and the likelihood of obtaining funds.

Successful grant writing hinges on finding grants applicable to your program and writing a winning proposal. A number of CIS state and regional offices assist local CIS programs by notifying them of grants for which CIS activities are likely to be eligible. The national office also keeps programs apprised of funding opportunities. In addition, grants are often announced on Web sites of federal agencies and foundations that provide funds and of organizations that monitor such opportunities.

Grant preparation often requires some technical expertise—to gather and present supporting demographic data, to prepare a detailed budget to support the application, and to write a proposal casting a project in the most favorable light. The CIS national, regional, and state offices frequently provide seminars or workshops on grant writing at conferences and training seminars. Local organizations, including colleges or universities, government agencies, professional organizations, and nonprofit organizations, periodically offer courses or workshops related to grant writing and sources of grants. Asking for informal advice from successful grant applicants or reviewing proposals they submitted can also be helpful to novices.

Keeping abreast of grant opportunities and writing proposals can take a considerable amount of time. Some CIS programs dedicate a portion of a staff position for that purpose or use volunteers to help write proposals.

• In early 1994, the Palm Beach County, Florida, CIS created a new position, community development coordinator, to write grant proposals, develop partnerships, and coordinate agencies.

• In Pinal County, Arizona, a rural county with limited resources, grant writing and fund-raising were primary responsibilities of the CIS executive director, who raised $1 million in grant money by 1993. VISTA volunteers assigned to the program also participated in writing grant applications.

Hiring a grant writer or seeking assistance from organizations such as nearby universities that provide pro bono service to community organizations is another option that might be pursued.

Federal, state, and local government funds that are already committed to organizations in the community can be tapped for specific program activities that meet their eligibility criteria. Program staff should make an effort to learn about these sources, since they may well be serving children who are entitled to the assistance provided.

• The Houston, Texas, CIS program received support from Houston's federally funded Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) as well as the Texas Commission on Alcohol and Drug Abuse.

• Pinal County, Arizona, used Racketeer-Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act money to reposition a Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) officer to a school.

Involve board members in raising funds.

An involved board is important to fund-raising. Members' employers can be approached for funding or other forms of support. Some CIS programs are straightforward about their expectations of board members.

• The Columbia, South Carolina, CIS program created a board of trustees in addition to a board of directors. Trustees were high-level business and community leaders whose association with the program helped promote its credibility, but who were too busy to serve as active board members. The board of trustees was used as a vehicle to obtain the guidance and support of certain individuals without requiring the work or responsibilities of a board member. Trustees were asked to provide three kinds of resources: assigning someone from their organization to serve as a board member, permitting recruitment of volunteers from their organization, and providing money or in-kind donations.

Since assistance with fund-raising is a typical responsibility of board members, it is important to select board members who have credibility and are well-connected with community and business leaders. Board members can serve as program advocates, promoting the visibility and successes of program efforts, which are key factors in successful fund-raising.

• The High Point, North Carolina, CIS program had a number of prominent individuals on its trustee advisory board (which had functions similar to the board of trustees in Columbia) and its board of directors. The two boards included government officials (city council members, county commissioners, and present or former mayors), school administrators, and key business leaders, including the chairperson of a major local manufacturing firm and the executive vice president of a local bank.

• In Seattle, Washington, the board's executive committee included the deputy superintendent of Seattle public schools, the president of the Seattle Education Association, a county prosecutor, a corporate director of the Boeing Company, the director of public transportation for Seattle, and the general partner of a private-sector business.

• The Houston, Texas, CIS program had a diverse board reflecting various "power brokers" in the community. Staff felt it was important to have high-level executives and administrators on the board because they can make commitments without going back to their organizations for approval.

Inviting board members to become involved with components of the program—to increase their sense of "ownership"—may enhance their efforts in fund-raising.

• The Columbia, South Carolina, CIS program used a variety of mechanisms to promote board involvement. Board members helped interview potential students, giving them a greater awareness of the kinds of issues CIS students and staff dealt with. Directors of the four CIS school projects attended board meetings and provided brief reports on activities and accomplishments at their schools. Board meetings were periodically rotated among the four school sites to provide an opportunity to see the facilities and hear from staff and students. Board members were invited to participate in special events, such as the annual graduation ceremony, and a day-long "retreat" that included identifying future priorities and directions.

• The Houston, Texas, CIS program helped ensure involvement of board members by assigning each board member to a school. Board members were encouraged to become involved at that site, for example, by serving as a tutor or mentor or sponsoring special events such as a holiday party. At a minimum, they were asked to visit their site at least twice a year and to have periodic telephone contact with their school's CIS project manager to learn about current activities.

Seek in-kind contributions, including reassigned staff and pro bono services.

In-kind contributions from businesses and other organizations are a rich source of support for CIS programs. From office equipment to tote bags, businesses and other organizations can advance the mission of a program. Every in-kind resource obtained reduces the need to raise funds to purchase that resource.

• In Columbia, South Carolina, the local utility rented a building to the CIS office for a token rent of $5 per year. It also provided the building housing one of the alternative school sites for $1 per year and spent about $50,000 renovating that space for use as a school. Local corporations also provided various kinds of equipment and furnishings to this program.

• In New York City, the corporate partner of MCA, Goldman, Sachs & Co., funded the first-year salary of the project coordinator and donated most of the program's furniture and equipment, including a copy machine and several computers. The firm also produced school brochures and provided business cards, stationery, and other supplies.

Some in-kind donations may be targeted directly to youth and families rather than as program resources.

• For example, in Seattle, Washington, COSTCO provided backpacks with school supplies to students at seven schools, donated snacks for class parties, and hosted a Thanksgiving dinner for about 300 students. In addition, each of twenty company warehouses "adopted" CIS families during the Christmas holidays, providing gifts and food.

School districts commonly provide space for CIS programs in schools and, in some cases, separate wings of schools or entire buildings for CIS "academies." Staff for CIS programs, from principals and teachers to social workers and counselors, are another common form of in-kind contribution among the programs studied. Many programs have at least one such staff member, in keeping with the CIS philosophy of repositioning staff from social service agencies to schools to promote better access to youth in need of services. Such repositioned staff can be considered an in-kind contribution only if the agency providing them continues to pay their salaries. In some cases, salaries of such staff are paid, in whole or part, by the CIS program due to the financial constraints of agencies providing the staff.

Another source of in-kind contributions, pro bono services, can come from both the public and the private sectors. They are provided by professionals such as doctors, nurses, and counselors. Some programs obtain pro bono professional services in lieu of repositioned staff for some functions.

• In Griffin-Spaulding, Georgia, a doctor came to the CIS academy one half-day per week to provide health counseling and referrals to clinics or other health services.

• In High Point, North Carolina, and Palm Beach County, Florida, local opticians provided students with eye examinations and glasses.

• In Seattle, Washington, Boeing Company provided "executives on loan" to facilitate partnership development.

Be responsive to the goals and information needs of funders.

Agencies that provide grants or other support usually expect some feedback about what was done with their funds and, to the extent possible, what was achieved with them. The latter can be tricky, since some program outcomes may not occur in the short run. Reporting program outcomes is discussed in greater detail in chapter 6.

Large funding agencies usually have rules and special formats for reporting, and they may require specific accounting practices to justify expenditures under a particular grant. Sophisticated financial and data systems to address funders' requirements may be beyond the scope of small programs. Larger programs that receive funds from numerous sources with varying reporting requirements can more readily address funding agencies' reporting needs.

• Houston, Texas' MIS was initially designed to meet reporting requirements of funding sources, including data on the amount, type, and duration of CIS services provided to students. These data could be reported by type of student (race, ethnicity, gender), family background, service provider, or school site. Reports to funders generally included student outcome information such as retention in school and graduation rates.

• The Palm Beach County, Florida, CIS tracked a variety of student and family demographic data, service delivery indicators, staff and volunteer activities, and project highlights (e.g., field trips, community service involvement) through an extensive set of records. School-based staff kept logs of contacts with students. Other records captured program activities and aggregate student or project information, such as the number of students enrolled and total home visits conducted. Much of the required record keeping evolved to comply with documentation requirements of the program's grant from the Children's Service Council.

Program staff should make an effort to inform major funders about what is being done with their support. This communication is particularly important when funders are local businesses or organizations, which expect more personal contact. Contact might be in the form of periodic briefings (in person or over the telephone), visits to see programs in operation, and inclusion of funders on newsletter mailing lists. Program directors should document problems encountered and how they were addressed to assure funders that the program receives appropriate oversight.

Put a human face on fund-raising efforts.

Use pictures and videos of program clients and activities to heighten potential funders' understanding and interest. Better yet, funders benefit from in-person contact with participants who can provide first-hand knowledge of the need for the program and testimonials of program benefits.

Use special events to raise funds.

Special events, from charity balls to sporting events, are commonly used as fund-raisers by a variety of nonprofit organizations. CIS programs in a number of communities successfully use periodic special events to raise funds. Events can be large, high-profile activities, or smaller, community-focused events.

• The Palm Beach County, Florida, CIS used several fund-raisers per year for more than eight years, including three annual golf tournaments and a celebrity tennis tournament that included such champions as Billy Jean King and Chris Evert Lloyd. These events generally raised $20,000 to $25,000 each. Businesses and organizations contributed time and resources to these events by sponsoring and underwriting activities, donating prizes, purchasing tickets, and participating in the events. PBCIS also tried a new fund-raising concept each year, such as partnering with the school district to host a community barbecue.

• The Downtown Seattle Association sponsored a "Christmas Carousel" in the downtown shopping area each year and allowed volunteers and staff of various nonprofit organizations to operate the ride while collecting funds for their organizations. Seattle CIS volunteers raised $48,000 during the 1993 holiday period this way.

• Adams County, Colorado, hired a professional development consultant to focus its fund-raising efforts. At his recommendation, the program held a luncheon to create awareness, raise funds, recruit leadership support, and develop interest and commitment, both personal and financial. Local organizations and businesses purchased tickets for tables, and more than 250 individuals attended. Keynote speakers made presentations after being briefed on the program's mission and value to the community. Presenters included the chief of police and a mother whose family received a variety of CIS support after staff identified a domestic violence problem. Seating was arranged so at least one board member or other knowledgeable CIS champion was at each table, where they could keep discussions focused on CIS and answer questions posed by tablemates. Pledge cards were available, and more than $21,000 was raised at the luncheon; in-kind donations and other forms of support were also promised.

Acknowledge supporters.

Recognition of supporters, particularly major donors, is always important. Personal thank-you calls and letters from program directors should be mandatory, along with recognition of members' efforts at board meetings. Periodic public acknowledgment of funders is also a good idea. Events associated with the program, such as annual holiday parties, picnics, or graduation ceremonies, can provide a good forum. Funders can be listed in special-events programs and newsletters.

• The Austin, Texas, CIS program acknowledged the local school district's substantial support by hosting an annual "school district appreciation" luncheon for key school district staff, school board members, and principals of schools with CIS programs. CIS program staff and board members also attended, and CIS staff from the respective schools provided testimonials about the help provided by school staff. Similarly, the Houston, Texas, CIS program held periodic recognition events, such as breakfasts to acknowledge principals and agency partners.

• Thank-you letters were sent out to speakers and corporate sponsors immediately after the Adams County, Colorado, luncheon, and advertisements were placed in local newspapers thanking corporate sponsors for their support. The program considered laminating the advertisements and sending them to corporate sponsors so they could be displayed.

MARKETING

Use publicity and the media to generate public awareness and support.

A number of CIS programs actively use publicity to generate public awareness and support.

• The CIS director of community relations in Columbia, South Carolina, regularly wrote brief press releases about CIS for the local media. Topics included annual graduation stories, visiting dignitaries (e.g., the governor, a U.S. senator, Barbara Bush), student receipt of scholarships and awards, and student involvement in special projects or events. The program occasionally used other forms of publicity, such as a billboard with a picture of the first graduating class.

• Corporate partners in Seattle, Washington, assisted CIS with marketing. Fox affiliate KCPQ-TV provided expertise in putting together presentations and public service announcements and gave booth space and entertainment at a CIS marketing event, Kids Fun Fair. Boeing Company provided the assistance of a public relations firm to help enhance CIS's visibility and image.

• In the early stages of developing their program, Houston, Texas, CIS staff appeared on local television talk shows and community-oriented programming to increase public and media awareness of CIS. This exposure helped establish media relationships that facilitated future coverage.

Become actively involved in community service and activites.

CIS staff and student involvement in various local efforts and committees has helped build support and promote awareness of programs in several communities. Student involvement in community service can help correct the image many community members have of at-risk youth as well as promote program visibility.

• The Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, CIS project permitted students to earn an elective credit for working a specified number of hours as volunteers in hospitals, libraries, the YMCA, the YWCA, or their school's day care center.

• Friday mornings were set aside so CIS students could participate in community service in Columbia, South Carolina. Students and teachers selected a group of agencies at which community services were performed. One group "adopted a highway" and kept it litter-free; a sign advertised this effort.

• Houston, Texas, CIS staff served on numerous committees in the community and were active in a wide range of efforts, all of which helped foster awareness of the program.

Another approach to involvement in community activities is through participation in community fairs, particularly those focused on program-related areas, such as health or youth fairs.

Use newsletters to keep in touch with the community.

Newsletters are commonly used as a form of marketing, not just a means to communicate upcoming events. They can be used to polish a program's public image and to advertise its accomplishments. The various constituencies served by a program—youth and families, partner agencies such as schools and social service agencies, funders and potential funders, and community residents—should be kept in mind when deciding on newsletter content and distribution.

With the growing ease of desktop publishing software, a good-looking newsletter can be created without a lot of expense or effort. However, newsletter production might best be handled as a donated service by a corporate or organizational partner, particularly for smaller programs with little staff time to spare for marketing. Actual distribution (mailings or bulk deliveries to key locations) may be more expensive than some programs can afford; again, this is a good task for a partner organization to perform.

Monitoring Program Outcomes to Improve Accountability

Material in this chapter draws heavily on several publications prepared by Urban Institute staff, primarily: Outcome Measurement for Thai Government Programs, H. Hatry, S. B. Rossman, and G. Barbour, Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1996; Guide to Program Outcome Measurement for the U.S. Department of Education, H. Hatry and M. Kopczynski, Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1997; and Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach, United Way of America, 1996.

One key program responsibility is monitoring program performance, particularly program outcomes. Programs typically collect and report data on the number of clients served (which reflects program workload), or the amount of services provided (which really reflects program outputs). However, an area that is often neglected, particularly by small service-providing agencies, is monitoring or measuring program outcomes. Accountability for program outcomes requires measurement of results in terms of changes in client conditions or other circumstances external to the program. Programs should measure factors that reflect progress toward achieving their mission and objectives. For example, programs aimed at reducing high-risk behavior might measure changes in youth attitudes about pro- and anti-social behaviors, as well as their actual involvement in, or avoidance of, activities such as truancy, teen pregnancy, or law-breaking.

Monitoring program outcomes has been the focus of increased attention in recent years. For example, CIS has increased its emphasis on measuring program outcomes as part of its training and has developed standard forms for community-level programs to use in their periodic reports to the national CIS organization. United Way of America recently implemented a strategic plan that includes measuring outcomes of health and human services agencies, and considering them in funding allocation decisions. United Way developed a training manual to assist member agencies in implementing outcome measurement as part of this initiative.

This chapter focuses on measuring and reporting program outcomes (results). Outcome measurement enables programs to demonstrate what they have accomplished, enhancing their accountability to their constituencies, and helping maintain credibility and support. Outcome information can be used to:

1. help program managers track how the program is doing, guide improvements in specific services or program components that may not be working well, and learn from components that are working well;

2. help program staff focus on achieving client-oriented results and setting priorities;

3. demonstrate accountability to current supporters of funds or other resources who require various kinds of information about program performance;

4. justify requests for funding/resources from current or new sources, or for changes in policy to facilitate achievement of program goals; and

5. inform the general public and program clients, which may translate into support that can be used for fund raising.

Details on technical elements of outcome measurement—such as data collection and analysis, constructing and conducting surveys—are beyond the scope of this report. The "Resources" section lists works that provide greater detail on various aspects of outcome measurement.

IDENTIFYING OUTCOMES

Initially, programs should decide who will be involved in identifying outcomes and outcome indicators. Some organizations establish a working group or committee for this purpose, which brings a diversity of opinions and perspectives that is not only helpful in identifying appropriate indicators, but also in clarifying thinking about the program's mission and services. Participants in such committees might include the program director and other key staff (for very small programs, all staff might be included), and representation from key stakeholders, such as partner agencies, the board of directors, the school district, and the school(s) in which the program is located. Outside expertise might also be used to assist in this process.

• The Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program created a subcommittee of its board of directors to develop that program's initial outcome indicators. The committee included a staff member from the sheriff's research department who was familiar with indicators associated with at-risk youth. The program's executive director and the director of one of the school programs also served on the committee.

• The Wichita/Sedgwick County, Kansas, CIS program used a consultant—a professor from the community psychology program of a local university—to assist in developing its outcome indicators. A committee comprised of staff from the community-level office, directors of CIS programs at several schools, and graduate-student interns from the community psychology program participated in this process.

  Two early steps in identifying outcomes for a program are:

  1. "doing your homework" in the sense of identifying the outcomes used for program monitoring by similar programs, as well as the outcomes key stakeholders want or expect to be monitored; and

  2. constructing a logic model to identify outcomes that can reasonably be expected to flow from program services.

It is helpful to take both steps as part of the process of identifying outcomes, regardless of the order in which this is done.

Do your homework: identify outcomes used by similar programs.

A good starting point for identifying outcomes is to review the outcomes measured and reported by similar programs. If your program is part of a national organization or network, its national leadership may already be providing suggestions for outcome measures, as CIS does. Alternatively, other programs in the network may be able to provide suggestions or refer you to other organizations that can serve as examples or provide advice.

• The national CIS organization recently revised its uniform reporting system for collecting data from local CIS programs, which are asked to provide periodic reports to the national office at the end of the fall and spring semesters, and an end-of-year report. Representatives from local and state CIS programs and the national office were brought together to help identify the data to be collected for these reports. The reports include data about program operations, such as budget, personnel, and other resources, and services provided, as well as on the schools and students served. One major modification to the report is inclusion of student outcome indicators for both CIS-enrolled students and the student body of schools that have CIS programs. The outcome data collected include: average number of students in attendance on a typical school day; number of dropouts; number of students promoted; number of high school graduates; and number of disciplinary actions (in- and out-of-school suspensions and expulsions).

Some CIS state offices have also developed reporting systems for use by programs in their state. The Texas CIS program has had a reporting system for several years, and local CIS programs in Texas are required to use it because they receive state funds channeled through the Texas CIS office. The North Carolina CIS program recently introduced a data collection and monitoring system for use by programs in its state (discussed below).

While reviewing the outcomes monitored by similar programs is a good starting point, caution should be exercised before adopting them. First, be sure to compare such measures with your own program's services. Other programs may measure outcomes related to services your program does not provide. Conversely, other programs may not provide all the services your program offers, so additional outcome measures may be needed.

• The director of the Wichita/Sedgwick County, Kansas, CIS program noted that their program reviewed outcome measures used by other CIS programs, and adopted several basic measures used by the Charlotte, North Carolina, CIS program. However, because the Wichita program emphasizes referring youth for health services, indicators related to health/mental health were added when Wichita staff developed outcome measures for their own program.

Outcome measures adopted from other programs should not be used without first obtaining a full understanding of how the measures are defined and how the data for them should be collected. This is particularly important when data are obtained through use of relatively complex instruments. In some cases, training may be needed to appropriately use such instruments.

• CIS programs wishing to use the Student Success Profile (SSP) developed for North Carolina CIS programs must send at least one staff member to attend a one-day workshop provided by training professionals. The training is intended to promote skills in administering the SSP, interpreting and applying results, and using data to document program needs and student outcomes.

Construct logic models for key programs.

Logic models (also called outcome sequence charts) are often used to help identify outcomes. Logic models visually depict the hypothesized sequence of events leading to end outcomes. They are essentially flow charts that show cause-and-effect relationships between program activities and outcomes. Logic models can help program staff "ground truth" the relationship between program activities and outcomes. For example, if a particular program is providing after-school recreational activities, but its goal is to improve students' academic performance, a logic model should illustrate that improved academic performance does not flow from its services. In this case, it would be advisable for the program to add tutoring to its mix of services.

One benefit of logic models is that they help program staff identify and understand the relationship between intermediate (short-term) and end (long-term) outcomes. This is particularly important because services aimed at high-risk youth cannot expect, realistically, to resolve all client problems in a short time. Also, some outcomes are cumulative, so it is important for the program to capture early indicators of success while awaiting longer-term results (for example, retention of students in school year by year for those who are not yet eligible for graduation). Exhibit 6-1 illustrates a logic model for a tutoring/ homework assistance program illustrating both types of outcomes.

Intermediate (short-term) outcomes are early indicators of change expected to lead to the end outcomes desired, and are, themselves, worthwhile. There may be several stages of intermediate outcomes. The initial intermediate outcome may be the number of participants voluntarily completing a program, for example, while a second intermediate outcome might be those who improved their behavior in ways that should lead to a desired end outcome. Because intermediate outcomes usually occur before end outcomes, they provide timely information to help managers guide their programs.

End (long-term) outcomes are the desired results of the program. There may be several stages of end outcomes. Some may occur shortly after completion of a program's activities, others may occur years later. For example, the ultimate outcome of a program for middle-school students may be completion of high school, which cannot be ascertained for several years. An earlier stage of end outcome in this case is promotion from one grade level to the next.

It is possible to construct a single logic model for a whole program that reflects multiple services provided and desired outcomes associated with each. However, it may be beneficial to develop separate logic models for distinct programs or program components, such as substance abuse prevention, tutoring, or job skills, since their desired outcomes often differ considerably.

In constructing logic models, it may be useful to review materials that identify the program's objectives, such as the organization's mission statement, and other program materials that describe intended results or objectives, such as annual reports, program descriptions or brochures, strategic plans, and funding applications. Discussions or interviews can also be conducted for this purpose. Program staff and volunteers who work directly with participants also can provide insights about program accomplishments. Talking with program participants in individual interviews, as a "focus group," or even informally may identify outcomes of importance to customers. Brainstorming with staff and key stakeholders also can be used to develop insights about the program's desired outcomes.

Select outcome indicators.

Once outcomes have been identified, the next step is to identify one or more outcome indicators for each of them.

Outcome indicators are measures (specific data items defined in numerical terms) used to track achievement in outcome categories, such as the number or percent of participants completing high school.

Outcome indicators specify what is to be measured, and identify the specific statistics or numerical formats that will be used to monitor progress toward achieving outcomes. Common numerical formats are the number or percent falling within the indicator category (such as the number or percent of high school graduates). Indicators for the tutoring program shown in the logic model include the number of students attending the program, the number or percent of students studying more, completing more homework assignments, receiving improved grades, performing at or above grade level, and being promoted to the next grade level, and reduction in the dropout rate.

Things to consider when selecting potential indicators include:

1. Relevance to the mission/objectives of the program and to the outcome which it is supposed to help measure.

2. Importance of what is measured (relatively unimportant indicators can be eliminated).

3. Duplication or overlap with other indicators. Often more than one indicator can be used for an outcome. For example, school attendance can be measured by the number of days present in school or the number of days of absenteeism. Programs should select the most appropriate definition, taking into account how information is reported in the data sources they will draw on.

4. Understandability and specificity of the indicator.

5. The extent of the program's control or influence over the indicator. Most programs have only partial control over indicators, particularly those for end outcomes. In general, the longer term an outcome is, the less influence a program is likely to have over it. However, important indicators should be included as long as the program has some influence over them.

6. Feasibility and cost of collecting the indicator data.

Some organizations use a few global measures that are considered to be outcomes of a variety of program activities, such as those used for the CIS reporting form discussed above (for example, the number of students promoted, high school graduates, dropouts, and disciplinary actions). For various reasons, it is not always possible to use a desired indicator, and alternative measures may have to be identified.

• The Wichita/Sedgwick County, Kansas, CIS program originally planned to use grade point averages (GPAs) as a basic outcome indicator. Staff discovered this was not feasible because the numerous schools and school districts served by the program do not all use grades. Some schools are ungraded, and some use pass/fail systems instead of numerical or letter grades. Thus, the program uses scores on standardized tests (MAT 7 reading and math tests) as well as promotion to next grade level, as an academic indicator. (Note: promotion to the next grade level would not be a meaningful outcome indicator in schools that have social promotion policies, which prevent retention in grade due to poor academic performance.) The program also developed a survey to obtain teacher feedback about student improvement in various areas.

Some organizations identify several intermediate and end outcomes for different programs.

• The Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program identified short- and long-term indicators for its two primary types of programming, the work skills program, which operates in three vocational school sites, and the dropout prevention program, which operates in twenty regular school sites (see Exhibit 6-2). This reporting approach was adopted because one of the program's key funders requires reporting in terms of short- and long-term outcomes. Previously, the program had collected information on the outcomes now identified as short-term indicators (which are measured over the course of one year).

  One interesting feature of Jacksonville's outcome monitoring approach it that the program also identifies specific objectives (numerical targets) for each indicator; for example, "85% of students will remain in the Full Time Vocational Training Program and pass their vocational courses."

As mentioned earlier, some programs track and report indicators other than outcomes, for various reasons.

• CIS' national reporting forms include information about personnel, including personnel employed by other organizations who are repositioned or assigned to CIS, and volunteers. This information is seen as reflecting brokering of existing resources, while numbers of personnel and hours worked demonstrate program size and capacity to serve youth and families. The dollar value of hours worked is seen as demonstrating the contribution CIS makes to schools and the community. The form similarly requests data on financial and in-kind resources brokered by CIS, since such donations are seen as indicators of the contribution made to schools, students, and families.

• The Wichita/Sedgwick County, Kansas, CIS program collects and reports data on outcome indicators commonly used by programs for at-risk youth, such as promotion, remaining in school, average daily attendance, and suspensions and expulsions. It also reports on what might be viewed as process indicators, such as linking students to agency resources or health benefits, or receiving support from tutors, mentors, or interns (see items 4 and 9 in Exhibit 6-3). Participation of parents or guardians in parent-teacher conferences is used as an indicator of parental involvement.

OBTAINING DATA

1. Is the data source likely to provide useful, reliable information related to the outcome?

2. Is the data collection method feasible in terms of time, administration procedures, and cost?

3. Will the resulting information be credible to the appropriate audiences?

While cost is always an important consideration, it should not be the dominant criterion in choosing data collection procedures. There may be ways to reduce the cost of what appears to be an expensive method. Staff of board-member corporations, school districts, or local universities can develop surveys and analyze data as a pro bono service. Volunteers can administer surveys. Such options should be explored before deciding not to use an otherwise desirable source of data. In addition, it is always possible to phase in additional data collection procedures over time, starting with simpler methods, and adding more complex and costly ones in the future.

Official records as sources of data.

A program's own records are the most frequently used data source, because the records are already available; staff are familiar with them and can access them; and this is generally a low-cost data collection option. To provide the range of indicators desired, however, program records often must be supplemented by records from other agencies. School records are one of the most common sources of data, in part because the objectives of many programs for at-risk youth address school-related behaviors. Other sources of data for outcomes related to at-risk youth are the records of courts, law enforcement agencies, and other social service agencies. Some programs also obtain data through surveys (interviews or questionnaires) of participants or others affected by program activities.

Initial attempts to use records data (from your own program or other agencies) often bring a variety of problems to light. It is not uncommon to find that data "required" in official records are not routinely entered, due to other demands on staff. The information that is recorded is not always useful for outcome measurement. For example, records do not always include information on frequency and duration of services provided, client characteristics related to difficulty of achieving outcomes, and whether services to which a client was referred were actually received. Due to concerns about confidentiality or the absence of interagency agreements for sharing information, program records often do not reflect such outcomes as juvenile encounters with the justice system and abuse or neglect.

Recordkeeping practices may require modification to make official records more useful for future outcome measurement. Measures of desired outcomes not currently collected should be added. Specific guidance and training on how to record data may be needed. Such changes are more feasible if the records involved are those of your own program, although other agencies, particularly those that are partners in collaborative efforts, may be willing to modify their data collection or recordkeeping practices.

Information sharing and confidentiality.

Information-sharing agreements are used by a number of programs to ensure that they can obtain data on outcomes kept in records of other agencies. Most agencies are unwilling to provide their data to anyone other than their own employees unless there is some form of agreement about the nature of the data to be provided and the uses to which the data will be put.

• SafeFutures initiatives commonly have Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) with each agency providing services for SafeFutures. In addition to specifying the nature of service provision involved, MOUs often spell out other aspects of collaboration, including information sharing. Imperial County, California's MOUs specify that agencies will provide data for use in evaluating the local initiative, for example.

• The Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program signs an interagency agreement with the Duval County School Board (DCSB) each year. The DCSB agrees to share information with CIS on student achievement and behavioral and attendance history of CIS participants for the purposes of assessment, treatment, and evaluation. In turn, CIS agrees to ensure that information disseminated carries an appropriate warning regarding the reliability, confidentiality, and control of further dissemination, and to share information on CIS participants and status in the CIS program with the DCSB. Both parties agree to comply with various laws, rules, and procedures related to records use, security, dissemination, retention, and destruction, and to maintain confidentiality of information as required by law.

• The Troup County, Georgia, CIS program has an agreement with the local school system that it will use school data for tracking and monitoring, and that it will not publicize individual data. In addition, CIS must have parental consent to obtain data.

Some programs are readily able to access other agencies' data, and some are even able to access data through their computerized data systems, because of their partnerships or due to staffing arrangements under which some program staff are actually employees of other agencies, and thus can access their data.

• The Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program has developed a sound partnership with the Duval County School Board. CIS has involved the school system in program governance from the program's inception by including the Superintendent of Schools and a school board member on its board of directors. Because of this partnership, CIS has been granted direct access to the school system's computerized Student Information Management System. To augment this data, CIS case managers manually collect data on CIS students in their schools on a quarterly basis for the CIS database.

• The Troup County, Georgia, CIS program is organized in such a way that its staff are all employed by other agencies, which enables access to data from those agencies. For example, the program director is employed by the Division of Family and Children's Services, and can access its data on CIS students; case managers are employed by the Department of Human Resources and can access its data; the administrative assistant is a school system employee who can access computerized school system records; and teachers assigned to CIS classes can access school-level data. The school system serves as the fiscal agent for the program, and the CIS office is located in its administrative building, further facilitating access to school data.

Many agencies, particularly school districts, require a signed parental consent form before they will release data. CIS programs often use a multi-purpose consent form that includes permission to participate in the program and various activities (such as field trips and referral to agencies for specific services), as well as consent to obtain information for monitoring or evaluation purposes. As is the case for other materials sent to parents, consent forms should be available in the primary languages spoken by area residents.

• The parental consent form used by the High Point, North Carolina, CIS program includes consent for interviews, tests, and questionnaires of students for program evaluation, release of confidential information (financial questions, grades, etc.) to CIS, and inclusion of their child in media coverage of CIS programs (interviews, photos, etc.). Space is provided on the consent form for parents to identify specific activities in which they do not wish their child to participate.

Use surveys as sources of data.

Surveys are extremely useful for collecting information that is not readily available from program records or other sources, such as changes in attitude or behavior. Students in a tutoring program can be surveyed about whether they are studying more or completing more homework assignments. Students in a substance-abuse education program might be surveyed about their attitudes toward drugs, as well as about actual use of drugs. Surveys can be used to obtain information on longer-term outcomes that occur after participation in the program ends, such as employment or educational involvement after graduation from high school.

• The High Point, North Carolina, CIS program has a policy of making 30- and 60-day follow-up telephone calls to graduates. Although a survey instrument is not used, information about employment status and enrollment in or plans for higher education, and so forth is obtained informally.

Surveys can be designed to identify changes in attitude or behavior by asking the same series of questions upon entry to a program and at a later date, or at the termination of participation in the program. Such surveys are referred to as "pre" and "post" surveys.

• The national CIS organization recently developed a series of surveys for use in an evaluation of the CIS-JROTC partnership academies. One of the survey instruments asks students to rate themselves on a scale of one (poor) to four (great) on a variety of behaviors, relationships, and attributes (see Exhibit 6-4 for selected questions from this survey). The survey is intended to be administered at the beginning and end of the school year.

• The North Carolina CIS program recently introduced a data collection and reporting system centered around a student survey developed by faculty of the School of Social Work at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The Student Success Profile (SSP) includes two groups of questions targeted to middle and high school students. One group focuses on the social environment, such as neighborhood, schools, friends, and family; the other addresses student self-perception in the areas of social support, self-confidence, school behavior, and general well-being.

• The SafeFutures program in Imperial County, California, plans to survey students in county high schools annually as part of its program evaluation efforts. The survey will include questions related to community risk and resiliency factors. Survey data will be assessed to determine whether students' perceptions in the target area improve over time, compared to data from students in the rest of the county.

• In St. Louis, Missouri, the local SafeFutures evaluators plan to administer an annual adolescent socialization survey to students in target-area middle schools. The survey includes a variety of questions related to self-perception and self-esteem, family and peer relationships, involvement in school activities, receipt of services from schools, participation in community programs, perceptions of neighborhood safety, delinquent behavior, and involvement with the juvenile justice system. Consistent with SafeFutures' focus on gang prevention and intervention, the survey also includes a series of questions related to gang involvement.

Surveys are also the primary way to obtain information about participant satisfaction with services. Participants can be asked about overall satisfaction with a program and about specific characteristics, such as convenience of location or hours of service, or helpfulness of staff. Such surveys should also ask for reasons for any poor service ratings and recommendations for improving services. Programs may also want to survey the general public to obtain information about awareness of the program, why non-users are not participating, and community perceptions regarding the program.

• Students in the Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program are surveyed at the end of each school year using a brief instrument that includes questions about customer satisfaction and perceived impacts of the program (see Exhibit 6-5). This survey also asks students to identify their most and least favorite CIS activities and the program features they felt helped them the most (checklists of program features and activities are provided for this purpose).

Surveys also may be used to assess attitudes, knowledge, behavioral change, or other attributes associated with participation in a particular program component or activity, such as a course or workshop.

• Students in the Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program participated in a Violence Prevention Project offered by the national CIS organization during the 1994-95 school year. The 13-week course covered such topics as conflict resolution, anger control, and mediation techniques. A follow-up survey administered a month after participation included questions about whether students believed they could better control their anger as a result of the training; whether they could now find better ways than fighting to solve conflicts; and whether they could do a better job of helping their friends avoid fights.

Parents or teachers may be surveyed to obtain information about behavioral changes they observe, such as relationships with family members, study habits at home, changes in completion of homework assignments, or behavior in class.

• The Wichita/Sedgwick County, Kansas, CIS program surveys teachers at the end of each school year for their assessment of changes observed in CIS students (see Exhibit 6-6). The program summarizes and reports the percentage of responses in various change categories (improved, no change, worsened) for various characteristics (such as reading skills, math skills, problems in the classroom, and health and human services) for each school served.

Although surveys can provide a wealth of information, there are complexities involved in developing them. For example, surveys must avoid questions that are unclear or that lead to biased or ambiguous responses. Surveys designed for children must use age-appropriate language and concepts. Surveys should be translated into the various languages spoken by intended respondents, and cultural considerations should be taken into account in selecting wording. Decisions also should be made about survey administration, including whether the survey will be administered in written form or by interviews and whether it will be administered by mail, over the telephone, in person (at home, or in a public place, such as the school or the program's facility), or by a combination of methods.

Given these complexities, it is generally advisable to obtain the assistance of professionals (perhaps on a pro bono basis) to develop and administer surveys that involve more than a few simple questions, unless the program has, or can access, individuals experienced in designing surveys. School districts or human services agencies may have research and evaluation departments whose staff can provide such assistance, as may corporations represented on the program's board of directors. It may also be possible to adopt surveys used by other, similar organizations, or to use their questions as a starting point to develop a survey for your own program. In addition, existing validated instruments related to various conditions and attitudes, such as self-esteem, parenting skills, and family functioning, may be useful for some programs.

• The Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program obtained the assistance of the school district's research and evaluation office in developing a survey for CIS students (shown in Exhibit 6-5). The research and evaluation office also plays a major role in administration of the survey each year. It sends the surveys to CIS teachers, who administer it to CIS students in their classes. Completed surveys are returned to the research and evaluation office, which compiles the data and provides it to CIS.

Since data are likely to be collected by different people in different locations and types of agencies (program staff, schools, service agencies), it is important to use common data collection practices. It is helpful to develop a list or guidebook of data collection tips that includes definitions and instructions to ensure that data are collected according to procedures and that the procedures are uniformly applied. If large numbers of individuals are involved in data collection, structured training should be provided, particularly if there are complex issues involved in the data to be collected.

• The national CIS organization developed an extensive handbook to accompany its revised reporting system for local programs. The handbook includes definitions of terms, instructions on how to calculate various types of data (estimates, averages, etc.), time periods to be used for reporting certain types of data, and so forth. It provides explicit instructions for filling out the various forms, suggestions for accessing school data, and tips on how data can be used.

Before data collection begins, it is appropriate to pilot-test data collection procedures and instruments to identify potential problems. Have data collectors complete any forms used, and have surveys completed by a group similar to the intended respondents, such as students who do not participate in the program but are in the same grade level as those who will complete the survey. Ask pretest participants for feedback about the wording of questions, adequacy of response categories, clarity of instructions, and format. Review completed forms and instruments to determine whether respondents are following instructions, enough space has been provided, and all questions are being answered.

It is also advisable to develop quality control procedures, such as spot-checking the various types of data, data collection practices, and data entry. Data should be proofread, and data that are inconsistent with similar or related data or those from prior time periods should be checked. It is also a good idea to conduct an in-depth review after the first use of a new data collection system, in order to identify any modifications that may be needed.

When collecting data from other agencies' records, try to minimize the extent of intrusion caused by data collection. As pointed out in the handbook for CIS' local reporting system, programs should avoid having several people request the same kind of information at different times, even if it is for different students. It is better to have a coordinated approach to collecting data, and to request all data needed at one time. The ideal data collection approach would be for the school, school district, or other agency to flag students enrolled in the program in their database, and provide a report on them to the program (or download the data for the program's database). In contrast, the most time-consuming method of collecting data from other agencies is copying it manually. In cases where schools will not provide direct access to their data, an alternative approach is to have students bring their report cards to designated staff members, who can copy information relevant for the outcome indicators used into the student's file or the program's database.

Avoid collecting data from other agencies at times that are particularly busy for their staff. Check with agencies to identify times of the year or month that are predictably busy because of report production, budget preparation, and so forth, and schedule your data collection to avoid such times, if at all possible.

Procedures to protect confidentiality and rights of participants should be part of any data collection effort. As noted previously, obtaining signed consent forms from parents/caregivers allowing the program to collect and use data about their child is common practice. Similarly, programs often require that those collecting, analyzing, or otherwise having contact with data sign pledges of confidentiality, agreeing that they will keep such information confidential. Training for data collectors should underscore the sensitivity of the data and describe practices to protect confidentiality. Procedures to protect data, such as keeping records or surveys in locked files and using identification numbers rather than names, should also be developed.

Plans to maintain information over time should be developed. Sometimes programs, particularly small, non-profit agencies, fail to keep records on previous students. In some cases, this occurs when program directors leave their positions and take records with them or discard them. Records also may be lost when program offices change location, or they may be discarded to make room for current data. Some incoming program directors have discovered that there are insufficient records to identify former program participants and track their current status in school or conduct a follow-up survey.

REPORTING AND USING OUTCOME DATA

Data can be transformed into useful information through use of (1) breakouts of outcome data for each indicator (or for key indicators), (2) comparisons of program data to other ("benchmark") data, (3) explanatory information related to findings, and (4) clear, understandable formats.

Data breakouts (disaggregation) by key characteristics help make data more useful to program managers, since they help pinpoint where the program is doing well or poorly. Relevant breakouts also make data more meaningful. Common breakout categories include:

1. geographic location, such as cities, neighborhoods, or zip codes;

2. organizational unit/project, such as different schools or facilities in which the project is located;

3. client characteristics, such as age, school grade, gender, income, race/ethnicity, length of program participation, language, or other special status; and

4. case level of difficulty.

Level-of-difficulty breakouts address the fact that programs have cases that vary considerably in difficulty. A program (or component) with a more difficult workload can be expected to have a harder time achieving desired outcomes. For example, it is easier for a program to obtain the outcome of "promotion to the next grade level" for students whose grades are at or above average than for those whose grades are well below average. Other level-of-difficulty categories that may be relevant for some program outcomes include substance abuse history and juvenile justice system involvement. Reporting breakouts by difficulty effectively eliminates the temptation for service delivery staff to "cream" or "skim," attracting or admitting only the easier-to-help clients, while discouraging those who are more difficult to help. The best way to identify categories of difficulty is through discussions with staff who are knowledgeable about the program and the variations in client workload characteristics. In identifying level-of-difficulty breakouts, care should be taken to define a relatively small number of categories in terms of specific characteristics for which information will be available.

• The Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program uses an approach similar to level-of-difficulty breakouts in reporting its data. It separately reports the number of students referred to the program for academic and attendance reasons, and reports both the number and percent of each group who improved academically and in attendance. These data are broken out by school, as are Jacksonville's aggregate data on the number and percent of students promoted, and number of dropouts.

Comparison of program outcome data with other outcome data, whether internal to the program or from external sources—often referred to as benchmarking—helps programs identify where they are or are not succeeding. This information can be used to redirect efforts and resources to improve performance where needed. Selected comparative data might be publicly reported to provide stakeholders or the community with a better understanding of the program's accomplishments, or demonstrate where improvements are likely to be sought. Comparing current to previous performance is one of the most common forms of benchmarking. In cases where programs establish performance targets (such as "90 percent of students will be promoted to the next grade level"), comparison of outcomes against targets is appropriate. Comparing outcomes for clients against those for similar non-clients is also a common way to present outcome data. For example, promotion rates for program participants in a given school can be compared to the overall rate in that school.

• For its 1995-96 evaluation report, the Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program constructed a comparison group similar to CIS students to compare such data as promotion and dropout rates. The comparison group consisted of a random sample of students enrolled in schools that had a CIS program, and who were considered eligible for participation in a dropout prevention program because they had a grade point average of less than 2.0, but who were not participating in such programs.

Some programs use both breakouts and comparisons in reporting their data.

• The High Point, North Carolina, CIS program regularly includes student outcome data in its annual report (see Exhibit 6-7). They use breakouts, presenting data for each of the three schools in which the program is located, and benchmarks, comparing CIS student outcome data (such as attendance rates) to the overall school rate.

Presentation of data should not be neglected. Data should be clear and understandable; it is also helpful to make reports user-friendly and attention-grabbing through use of visually attractive, easy-to-understand tables, charts, and diagrams. With the increase in user-friendly computer software, program staff no longer need to be "experts" to develop bar charts, pie charts, and other graphic devices to display data. Tables also can be made more accessible by attractive formatting. Mapping, although more complex, is a dramatic tool to illustrate geographic distribution of a problem, resource, or outcome, but is not applicable to all situations.

• The Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program has contracted with a local university to analyze and report its annual data, to help ensure that data are presented clearly and objectively. Exhibit 6-8 illustrates the bar-chart format used in these reports to present data comparing outcomes of CIS participants to comparison-group students. Bar charts also are used to compare outcomes at different school levels, and to show changes in outcomes, such as promotion rates, over time.

Explanatory information should be provided in conjunction with outcome data. Outcomes that are measured and reported attract attention; therefore, program managers should provide some explanation of program context, particularly when outcomes are not as good as desired, or when there is a dramatic change in either a positive or negative direction.

• In its year-end report to a major funding agency, the Jacksonville, Florida, CIS program includes a variety of explanatory information. Its 1996-97 report, for example, notes that the 22-percent dropout rate for CIS students in a specific type of academic program must be considered in the context of the dropout rate for the overall population of those programs, which has been 40 percent to 60 percent on average per year.

Internal and external factors that affect outcomes should be included in explanatory information. For example, the program may have more clients at a higher level of difficulty (an external factor) than in the past, or changes in policies or practices of other institutions may have occurred. If a school district adopts more stringent policies for promotion, "number of students promoted" may be lower than in a previous reporting period. Similarly, imposition of a "get tough" policy on the part of the police may result in higher arrest rates. Internal factors that may affect outcomes include the amount of resources, including funds, staff, and volunteers, available to provide services, and high staff turnover. Changes in service delivery practices, such as adoption of a different curriculum for a substance abuse prevention program, or a switch from individual to group tutoring, are other internal factors that may influence outcomes.

Use data to strengthen your program.

Outcome data can be used for internal and external purposes. Internally, outcome findings can provide guidance to staff, particularly in terms of areas that need improvement, or lessons that can be learned from services or units that appear to be working particularly well. Breakouts of data by program units that provide essentially the same service to the same type of customer enable managers to compare outcomes of each unit against the one with the best performance, and may indicate where guidance, resources, training, or a different service delivery approach are needed. Such information also may motivate other units to better performance. Comparisons of outcomes for different client groups help managers identify where changes may be needed to achieve better performance. For example, a program might discover that outcomes are better for boys than for girls, leading to changes in services for girls.

A good way to use outcome information is to hold "how are we doing" meetings after each outcome report, during which managers and staff discuss where the program has done well and not so well, and why; and what can be done to improve results in the future. Since outcome data do not tell you what caused the result, these meetings should focus on exploring why the outcomes were as reported. In some cases, programs may undertake more detailed studies, such as program evaluations, to obtain a better understanding of the "whys."

Outcome data can be used to support planning, prepare budgets and justify resource allocation, and develop or modify services or interventions.

• Data from the Student Success Profile (SSP) survey developed for the North Carolina CIS program are intended to be used in two ways. Individual responses are used to create an individual student profile used for planning service delivery and as a baseline for tracking progress over time (through administration of the same survey at a later date). Student responses are also aggregated at the school site or community level to create a group profile, which compares CIS students to a nationally representative sample of students at the same school level. Group profiles can be used to identify school- or community-level needs, select interventions, guide program efforts, and document changes associated with CIS interventions (after re-administration of the survey). It is expected that group profiles will be used to initiate dialogues at the community level about changes needed to address issues identified in the survey, such as high percentages of students reporting that they feel unsafe at school or in their neighborhoods.

External uses for outcome data include providing information to the general public, stakeholders, funders, potential funders, and potential participants or referral sources. One mechanism for reporting outcome data is a program's annual report, which is often used for several of these purposes. Selected outcome data also might be included in program brochures or recruiting material. Press releases can be used to announce accomplishments to the general public. Data collected on a more frequent basis may be informally reported at meetings of the program's board of directors, and/or conveyed to key stakeholders, such as school district leadership.

Outcome data may also support requests for continued support from funders, by demonstrating a program's achievements, particularly when comparative data is available to illustrate differences between program participants and non-participants. Such data also may be used to argue for resources to expand programs to serve additional youth.

Data other than outcome indicators also may be used in seeking external support.

• In its handbook for local program reporting, the CIS national organization points out that identifying resources (funds, reassigned staff, or volunteers) obtained from one sector can be a powerful tool for leveraging resources from another sector. Resources brokered by CIS can also be an indicator of the contribution the program makes to schools, students, and families involved, and so can be used when seeking continued or additional support for the program.

Ultimately, the various uses of outcome information should benefit youth by enabling programs to modify services in order to better address their needs and to generate resources to continue providing services.

RESOURCES

ORGANIZATIONS AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

Zelazny, G. 1991. Say it with charts: The executive's guide to successful presentations in the 1990's. 2d ed. Irwin, Ill.: Business One.

About the Authors

Elaine Morley is a senior research associate in the Justice Policy Center of the Urban Institute. She is currently involved in the evaluation of the SafeFutures program, and was a co-principal investigator in the Cities in Schools national evaluation. Prior to joining the Institute, Ms. Morley served as an associate professor of public administration and policy analysis at Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville. She holds a Ph.D. in Social Science from Syracuse University.

Shelli B. Rossman is a senior research associate in the Justice Policy Center of the Urban Institute. She serves as the project director for the evaluations of the SafeFutures and Opportunities to Succeed programs. She was a co-principal investigator for the national evaluation of Cities in Schools, and served as senior staff on the cost and benefits analysis of the Children at Risk evaluation. Ms. Rossman holds an M.A. in sociology, with specialties in criminology and social problems, from Temple University.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the contributions of many individuals who assisted in the evaluation of the CIS program, particularly the program directors and staff members of the 21 communities visited for that evaluation. The sites, in order of visitation, are Richmond, Virginia; Greensville-Emporia, Virginia; Rocky Mount, North Carolina; Pinal County, Arizona; Long Beach, California; Columbia, South Carolina; Griffin-Spalding, Georgia; Miami Private Industry Council (PIC), Florida; Palm Beach County, Florida; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; San Antonio, Texas; Austin, Texas; Chicago, Illinois; Southwestern Pennsylvania; High Point, North Carolina; Marianna, Arkansas; Helena/West Helena, Arkansas; Adams County, Colorado; Seattle, Washington; Metropolitan Corporate Academy, New York City; and Houston, Texas. Similarly, we appreciate the cooperation and assistance of the directors and staff of the CIS national office, regional offices, and state offices who participated in site visits and provided materials. We particularly wish to thank Linda Britt, CIS' Director of Research and Evaluation, for her assistance during the evaluation of CIS, and for additional information provided for this report. In addition to the programs visited for the national evaluation, information was provided for this report by the CIS programs of Central Texas (Austin); High Point, North Carolina; Jacksonville, Florida; Kingsville, Texas; Troup County, Georgia; Wichita/Sedgwick County, Kansas; the North Carolina state CIS program; and Gary Bowen of the School of Social Work at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Their assistance is greatly appreciated.

The contributions and assistance of communities participating in the ongoing evaluation of the SafeFutures initiative are also acknowledged. Directors and staff associated with SafeFutures provided insights and information during the early stages of that evaluation. Thanks are extended to directors, staff, and others associated with SafeFutures in the six demonstration communities: Boston, Massachusetts; Contra Costa County, California; Fort Belknap, Montana; Imperial County, California; Seattle, Washington; and St. Louis, Missouri.

We also wish to thank E. Blaine Liner for his advice and support and Patricia Forsythe for her assistance in reviewing and drafting material for this report.

Although we appreciate and acknowledge the contributions of those listed above, and any others inadvertently omitted, the authors acknowledge their responsibility for any errors herein.

This report was prepared with the support of the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation. The evaluation of Communities in Schools it draws on was conducted under Cooperative Agreement #91-JN-CX-K001 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The evaluation of SafeFutures is being conducted under Grant #95-JN-FX-K012 from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. Points of view or opinions in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice or the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation.

Checklist of Suggested Practices

* page numbers are from printed copy and are retained to maintain continuity.

SERVICES INTEGRATION

• Build broad-based collaboratives and partnerships to promote services integration. (p. 6)
  
• Use formal agreements to promote services integration. (p. 9)
  
• Colocate staff to promote integrated services and enhance case management. (p. 10)
  
• Facilitate working relations with relocated staff (e.g., provide orientation, training, and adequate supervision). (p. 11)
  
• Adopt practices to support services integration, such as holding regular meetings of collaborative groups, sharing information about agency services, and developing good relationships with school districts and schools. (p. 12)

CASE MANAGEMENT

• Use staff with appropriate qualifications to provide case management. (p. 15)
  
• Provide ongoing training for case managers. (p. 17)
  
• Implement comprehensive case management activities. (p. 17)

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

• Involve parents as soon as possible and make clear expectations of involvement. (p. 24)
  
• Create a welcoming atmosphere. (p. 25)
  
• Reduce barriers to involvement—schedule meetings at parents' convenience, provide child care, and help with transportation. (p. 25)
  
• Use outreach and home visits to involve parents. (p. 26)
  
• Offer services that interest and help parents, such as parenting skills training, Graduate Equivalency Diploma classes, and parent support groups. (p. 27)
  
• Involve parents in volunteer efforts, enabling them to "give back" to the program. (p. 29)
  
• Stay in touch with parents. (p. 29)

VOLUNTEER TUTORS AND MENTORS

• Establish responsibility for volunteer efforts. (p. 33)
  
• Put energy and creativity into volunteer recruitment. (p. 35)
  
• Arrange to screen volunteers. (p. 37)
  
• Provide training to volunteers. (p. 37)
  
• Select students to be tutored or mentored consistent with the goals of the program. (p. 40)
  
• Inform and involve parents. (p. 40)
  
• Match volunteers and youth, considering factors such as gender, ethnicity, language, and shared interests. (p. 40)
  
• Provide ongoing support and monitoring of volunteers. (p. 42)
  
• Recognize volunteers' work in ongoing and small ways in addition to public recognition activities. (p. 43)

FUND-RAISING AND MARKETING

• Diversify funding sources and seek long-term commitments of funds. (p. 45)
  
• Pursue public or private grants. (p. 47)
  
• Involve board members in raising funds. (p. 48)
  
• Seek in-kind contributions, including reassigned staff and pro bono services. (p. 49)
  
• Be responsive to the goals and information needs of funders. (p. 50)
  
• Put a human face on fund-raising efforts. (p. 51)
  
• Use special events to raise funds. (p. 51)
  
• Acknowledge supporters. (p. 52)
  
• Use publicity and the media to generate public awareness and support. (p. 52)
  
• Encourage staff and clients to become actively involved in community service and activities to build program awareness and support. (p. 53)
  
• Use newsletters to keep in touch with the community. (p. 53)

MONITORING PROGRAM OUTCOMES TO IMPROVE ACCOUNTABILITY

• Identify outcomes used by similar programs as a starting point for identifying your own outcomes. (p. 57)
  
• Construct logic models to help realistically identify outcomes of key programs. (p. 58)
  
• Select outcome indicators, considering factors such as relevance, importance, understandability, extent of program control over the outcome, and the feasibility and cost of data collection. (p. 59)
  
• Obtain data from official records—of the program and other agencies. (p. 65)
  
• Address information sharing and confidentiality issues. (p. 65)
  
• Use surveys as sources of data. (p. 67)
  
• Establish data collection procedures. (p. 71)
  
• Present data using breakouts, comparisons, and explanatory information to make it more useful. (p. 73)
  
• Use findings to strengthen programs. (p. 76)

Tables and Charts